Non-discrimination GATT Law

Non-discrimination GATT Law Non-discrimination is a cornerstone of GATT law Introduction The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade is a treaty to which the U.S. and many other countries are signatories. Its purpose is to free international trade and reduce tariffs. GATT has been revised several times; each revision is called a round. The latest is the Uruguay Round of GATT requires signatories to protect intellectual property and provide similar protection of intellectual property owned by nationals and foreigners. Adherence by the U.S. to GATT has brought about numerous changes to the U.S. Patent System that brings U.S. patent law into closer harmony with the patent systems of other countries. (Oppedahl Patent Law Firm LLC, 1993). The GATT established trade principles that continue to be applied today. The most important trade principle was non-discrimination with regard to the treatment of trade in goods among countries. Article 1 of the GATT, states that any advantage given by a contracting party to a product of another country, must be extended unconditionally to a like product of all other contracting parties. The above article is the most favoured nation principle. A second rule of non-discrimination is national treatment, the principle that imported and domestic goods should be treated equally. Although non-discrimination is a cornerstone of the GATT, some exceptions are allowed. For example, custom unions, free-trade areas, and special treatment for developing countries are permitted. (Fergusson, 2007). Another principle is the open and fair application of any trade barriers. Tariffs were the most common and visible form of trade barrier at the time the GATT was established. (Fergusson, 2007). Tariffs are bound or set at maximum levels, and not to increase above the negotiated level. In general, quantitative restrictions such as quotas were not allowed, since tariffs were much easier to identify and to eventually reduce. The paper will focus on the most favoured principles and the national treatment principles. Studies and researches will be presented to evaluate the cornerstone of GATT law which is non-discrimination. Definition of Terms GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Like Products or Likeness having the same characteristics. The term applies to the products of different countries being exported and imported. The purpose of defining â€Å"Like Products† is to create a criterion by which likeness to be measured. One must described the individual criteria with some care, and after that it is possible to talk about degrees of likeness within the boundaries of those criteria or characteristics. Discrimination in economic, the definition is less favourable treatment of goods from one foreign country vis a vis the goods of another foreign country. Brief History of GATT Law After World War II a new order came in about trading. The Breton Woods Conference1 in 1944, created the International Monetary Fund2 nd the World Bank for economic restructuring and development in Western Europe. The General Agreement on Trade and Tariff was created at the first session of the Preparatory Committee of UN Conference on Trade and Employment in 1946. (Williams, 2006). The GATTs initial purpose was to negotiate tariff concessions among members and to establish a code of conduct and procedures for the resolution of trade disputes by negotiation. Successive negotiations (called rounds) have also focussed on the code of conduct for no tariff barriers. The GATT was founded on the principles of non discrimination and multilateralism in international trade. Non discrimination is expressed via unconditional Most Favoured Nation status for all contracting parties. By this convention if the tariff on imports from one country is decreased, the tariff on all imports of the same goo ds from other GATT members must be reduced. (Williams, 2006). The debacle of the 1930s led to a reassessment, realignment and restructuring of the world economy. The result of the reassessment was that tariff wars were destructive to all parties, it should not be allowed to happen again and a more coherent framework was needed. (Williams, 2006). Conventional wisdom attributes much of the prosperity that occurred in the global economy since the 1 officially known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference was a gathering of delegates from 44 nations that met from July 1 to 22, 1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to agree upon a series of new rules for the post-WWII international monetary system. 2 oversee the worlds monetary and exchange rate systems 1940s to the existence of the GATT. In particular, the GATT is lauded for the dramatic increase in world trade and (until the mid 1980s) the absence of any serious trade friction. Beginning in 1986, the Uruguay Round negotiations included the areas of tariffs, services and intellectual property. Over seven years of negotiations, the GATT agreements evolved into their current state. The Uruguay Round concluded in 1994 with numerous agreements to reduce trade barriers and institute more enforceable world trade rules. One of the major results of the Uruguay Round was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which officially began operations on January 1, 1995. The WTO is a multilateral organization with the mandate to establish enforceable trade rules, to act as a dispute settlement body and to provide a forum for further negotiations into reducing trade barriers. According to the WTO website, there are 147 WTO member countries and observer countries. 3 Beginning in 2001 and proceeding through at least 2005, the Doha Agenda represents the current round of negotiations. The Most Favoured Nation Treatment (MFN) During the first years of International Trade, Most Favoured Nation status was usually used on a dual party, state to state basis. Generally bilateral, in the late 19th and early 20th century unilateral most favoured nation clauses were imposed on Asian nations by the more powerful Western countries. One particular example of most favoured nation status is the Treaty of Nanking as part of the series of unequal 3the complete list of members is available in the WTO website. treaties. It was implemented in the aftermath of the First Opium War between Great Britain and China Qing Dynasty involving the Hong Kong islands. Most favoured nation relationships contrast with reciprocal relationships, since in reciprocal relationships a particular privilege granted by one party only extends to other parties who reciprocate that privilege, rather than to all parties with which it has a most favoured nation agreement. The Most Favoured Nation Treatment or National Trade Relation is an obligation to treat activities of a particular foreign country or its citizens at least as favourably as it treats the activities of any other country. MFN is the policy of non-discrimination in trade that provides to all trading partners the same customs and tariff treatment given to other favoured nations. The phrase most favoured maybe interpreted as especially favourable treatment but the concept of GATT is equal treatment to other party which is most favored. In the GATT the MFN obligation calls for each contracting party to grant to every other contracting party the most favourable treatment that it grants to any country with respect to imports and exports of products. (Abimbola, 2005). Article 1 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade states that â€Å" with respect customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on or in connection with importation or exportation or imposed on the international transfer of payments for imports or exports and with respect to the method of levying such duties and charges, and with respect to all rules and formalities in connection with importation and exportation and with respect to all matters referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article III, any advantage, favour, privilege or immunity granted by any contracting party to any product originating in or destined for any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to other like product originating in or destined for the territories of all other contracting parties.† This clause speaks of MFN treatments fro â€Å"like products†. A 1982 GATT panel found in favour of Brazil that Spain had not lived up to GATT MFN obligation when it subdivided its cu stoms classification of coffee and applied a much higher duty on those types of coffee imported from Brazil. The panel stated that the coffees were so nearly the same that they were â€Å"like products†, and that this must be treated non discriminatorily even though no tariffs were binding by Spain on the product. GATT Article XIII stipulates that quantitative restrictions or tariff quotas on any product must be administered in a non-discriminatory fashion regarding like products, and that in administering import restrictions and tariff quotas, WTO Members shall aim to allocate shares close to that which might be expected in their absence. Article XIII provides for most-favoured-nation treatment in the administration of quantitative restrictions, and supplements the disciplines under Article I. The MFN principle has been expanded and it includes not only importation and exportation of gods but it also includes foreign investments and trade in services. (Abimbola,2005). In Bilateral Investment Treaties4 (BIT) over 1800 BITs (Abimbola, 2005) were compared with about 500 only a decade ago. In the treaties 4 the aspect of foreign investments can be found in BIT. each state generally undertakes to admit, in accordance with its laws and regulations, investments from other state. Also in the treaties are the Covered Investment, it guarantee not only national treatment, but also most favoured nation (MFN) treatment. The BIT also undertake to allow the investor the free transfer abroad of capital, profits and other sums that are related to the investment. It prohibits the expropriation of investments except in the public interest and against prompt, adequate and effective compensation. (Stevens, 2001). Exceptions to the Most Favoured Nation Rule There are some exceptions to the Most Favoured Nation rule, among them are as follows: a) Regional Integration (GATT Article XXIV). Regional integration liberalizes trade among countries within the region, while allowing trade barriers with countries outside the region. GATT Article XXIV provides that regional integration may be allowed as an exception to the Most Favoured Nation rule only if the following conditions are met. First, tariffs and other barriers to trade must be eliminated with respect to substantially all trade within the region. Second, the tariffs and other barriers to trade applied to outside countries must not be higher or more restrictive than they were prior to establishment of regional integration. Regional integration has a vast impact on the world economy today and is the subject of frequent debate in a variety of forums, including the WTO Committee on Regional Trade Agreements. b) Generalized System of Preferences The Generalized System of Preferences or â€Å"GSP† is a system that grants products originating in developing countries lower tariff rates than those normally enjoyed under Most Favoured Nation status as a special measure granted to developing countries in order to increase their export earnings and promote their development. c) Non- Application of Multilateral Trade Agreements between Particular Member States (WTO Article XIII) The Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization provides that this Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreement in Annexes 1 and 2 shall not apply as between any Member and any other Member, when either of the following conditions are met: a) at the time the WTO went into force, Article XXXV of GATT 1947 had been invoked earlier and was effective as between original Members of the WTO which were contracting parties to GATT 1947. b) Between a Member and another Member which has acceded under Article XII only if the Member not consenting to the application has so notified the Ministerial Conference before the approval of the agreement on the terms of accession by the Ministerial Conference. d) Other Exceptions Other exceptions to the Most-Favoured-Nation principle include Article XXIV:3 regarding frontier traffic with adjacent countries, and Article I:2 regarding historical preferences which were in force at the signing of the GATT. General exceptions to the GATT that may be applied to the Most-Favoured-Nation principle include Article XX regarding General Exceptions for measures necessary to protect public morals, life and health, etc., and Article XXI regarding Security Exceptions. It is also possible to obtain a waiver to constitute an exception to the Most-Favoured-Nation principle. Under WTO Article IX:3, countries may, with the agreement of other contracting parties, waive their obligations under the agreement. National Treatment Principle National treatment stands alongside MFN treatment as one of the central principles of the WTO Agreement. Under the national treatment rule, the members must not accord discriminatory appropriate treatment between imports and like domestic products. GATT Article III requires that WTO members provide national treatment to all other members. Article III:1 stipulates the general principle that members must not apply internal taxes or other internal charges, laws, regulations and requirements affecting imported or domestic products so as to afford protection to domestic production. In relation to internal taxes or other internal charges, Article III:2 stipulates that WTO standards shall not apply standards higher than those imposed on domestic products between imported goods and â€Å"like† domestic goods, or between imported goods and a directly competitive and substitutable product. With regards to article III:4 provides that member shall accord imported products treatment no les s favourable than that accorded to â€Å"like products† of national origin. National treatment is a principle in customary international law vital to many treaty regimes. In National treatment, if a particular right, benefit or privilege is granted by a state to its own citizen, then it must be also granted to the citizen of other states while they are in the country. It is stated in the international agreements that a state must provide equal treatment to those citizen of other states that are participating in the agreement. Exceptions to National Treatment Rule Although National Treatment is a basic principle, GATT still provides exceptions as follows: Government Procurement GATT article III:8 a) permits governments to purchase domestic products preferentially, making government procurement one of the exceptions to the national treatment rule. This exception is permitted because WTO members recognize the role of government procurement in national policy. While the GATT made government procurement an exception to the national treatment rule, the Agreement on Government Procurement resulting from the Uruguay Round mandates signatories to offer national treatment in their government procurement. The national treatment rule applies only between those who have acceded to the Agreement on Government Procurement, and for others, the traditional exception is still in force. Domestic Subsidies GATT Article III:8 (b) allows for the payment of subsidies exclusively to domestic producers as an exception to the national treatment rule, under the condition that it is not in violation of other provisions in Article III and the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing measures. The reason for this exception is that subsidies are recognized to be an effective policy tool, and is recognized to be basically within the latitude of domestic policy authorities. However, because subsidies may have a negative effect on trade, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures imposes strict disciplines on the use of subsidies. GATT Articles XVIII:C Members in the early stages of development can raise their standard of living by promoting the establishment of infant industries, but this may require government support and the goal may not be realistically attainable with measures that conform to the GATT. In such cases, countries can use the provisions of GATT Article XVIII:C to notify WTO members and initiate consultations. After the consultations are completed under certain restrictions, these countries are then allowed to take measures that are inconsistent with GATT provisions excluding Articles, I, II and XIII. The GATT article XVIII:C procedure allows both border measures and violations of the national treatment obligations in order to promote domestic infant industries. Other Exceptions to National Treatment Exceptions peculiar to national treatment include the exception on screen quotas of cinematographic films under Article III:10 and Article IV. The provisions of GATT Article XX on general exceptions, Article XXI on security exceptions and WTO Article IX on waivers also apply to the national treatment rule. Problems on Trade Policies and Measures National treatment as well as MFN is invoked in WTO disputes. National treatment principle is usually invoked in conjunction with other provisions regarding MFN, quantitative restrictions, TRIMs and standards and conformity assessment. Among the countries that are having problems in trades are the United States, Korea, Indonesia and Brazil. Conclusion Under the WTO agreements, countries cannot normally discriminate between their trading partners. Grant someone a special favour (such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products) and you have to do the same for all other WTO members. Most-favoured-nation (MFN) treatment. It is so important that it is the first article of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which governs trade in goods. MFN is also a priority in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) (Article 2) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), although in each agreement the principle is handled slightly differently. Together, those three agreements cover all three main areas of trade handled by the WTO (World Trade Organization). Some exceptions are allowed. For example, countries can set up a free trade agreement that applies only to goods traded within the group — discriminating against goods from outside. Or they can give developing countries special access to their markets. Or a country can raise barriers against products that are considered to be traded unfairly from specific countries. And in services, countries are allowed, in limited circumstances, to discriminate. But the agreements only permit these exceptions under strict conditions. In general, MFN means that every time a country lowers a trade barrier or opens up a market, it has to do so for the same goods or services from all its trading partners — whether rich or poor, weak or strong. 2. National treatment: Treating foreigners and locals equally. Imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally — at least after the foreign goods have entered the market. The same should apply to foreign and domestic services, and to foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents. This principle of â€Å"national treatment† (giving others the same treatment as ones own nationals) is also found in all the three main WTO agreements (Article 3 of GATT, Article 17 of GATS and Article 3 of TRIPS), although once again the principle is handled slightly differently in each of these. National treatment only applies once a product, service or item of intellectual property has entered the market. Therefore, charging customs duty on an import is not a violation of national treatment even if locally-produced products are not charged an equivalent tax. While this is generally viewed as a desirable principle, in custom it conversely means that a state can deprive foreigners of anything of which it deprives its own citizens. An opposing principle calls for an international minimum standard of justice (a sort of basic due process) that would provide a base floor for the protection of rights and of access to judicial process. The conflict between national treatment and minimum standards has mainly played out between industrialized and developing nations, in the context of expropriations. Many developing nations, having the power to take control over the property of their own citizens, wished to exercise it over the property of aliens as well. Though support for national treatment was expressed in several controversial (and legally nonbinding) United Nations General Assembly resolutions, the issue of expropriations is almost universally handled through treaties with other states and contracts with private entities, rather than through reliance upon international custom. National treatment is an integral part of many World Trade Organization agreements. Reference: Abimbola, FO., 2005, The Most Favoured Nation Principle http://primesolicitors.com/papers/website_resource_3.pdf?PHPSESSID=0fb5d787e50d5e25a3253641c6fe4405 http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm#GATT94 Fergusson, I. May 2007 CRS Report for Congress- The World Trade Organization: Williams, M. A, 2006 Brief History of GATT and NAFTA Womens Alternative Economic Network, http://www.greens.org/s-r/06/06-15.html The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm http://www.law.duke.edu/lib/researchguides/gatt.html http://www.worldtradelaw.net/articles/hudeclikeproduct.pdf http://www.law.columbia.edu/library/Research_Guides/internat_law/trade_guide#general_intro Stevens, M., September, 2001, Experience in Arbitrations under the ICSID Rules pursuant to Bilateral Investment Treaties, Vol. 29, No. 8 Page 377. Chapter 2 : National Treatment Principle http://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/gCT0002e.pdf

Postpartum Depression A Concept Analysis Health And Social Care Essay

Postpartum Depression A Concept Analysis Health And Social Care Essay Postpartum Depression is generally defined in the following context: Specifier of nonpsychotic major depression that has its onset within 4 weeks after delivery (Mehta and Sheth, 2006). In addition, the illness is often classified into the following categories: Baby blues, nonpsychotic depression, and puerperal psychosis (Mehta and Sheth, 2006). Therefore, the illness is complex in nature and is attributed to the emotions that are experienced after giving birth (Mehta and Sheth, 2006). It appears that there are no clear distinctions between first-time and experienced mothers facing postpartum depression, and that the state is potentially dependent upon hormonal imbalances (Mehta and Sheth, 2006). The state of postpartum depression is particularly difficult for its sufferers, as they are often unable to care for their newborn babies in the way that they desire, and this places a particularly difficult strain upon the family in these cases. The defining attributes of the illness are em otional in nature, and require further evaluation in order to establish a successful diagnosis and treatment strategy. For women facing the risk of postpartum depression, there are a number of common concerns that are well-defined and researched, including but not limited to stress, hormone imbalance, and alternative methods of conception. Therefore, those women facing postpartum depression often possess a number of risk factors that may be individual or combined. As a result, a diagnosis of this condition is often based upon several factors. However, these factors may also be attributed to other conditions and circumstances, so how they are identified and managed is of critical importance in addressing the condition directly. In general, A meta-analysis of numerous studies found the average prevalence rate of postpartum depression to be 13 %there is a three-fold increase in the risk of depression during the first months after delivery (Joesfsson, 2003, p. 14). Therefore, it is important to note that postpartum depression is a common condition that requires further evaluation and treatment. A case study is perhaps the most feasible opportunity to explore the variables involved in postpartum depression, as this will enable the evaluator to determine the extent to which the illness is based upon various factors, how it was derived, and how to best treat the condition effectively. Typically, a scale known as the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is widely used to identify the severity of postpartum depression episodes, as is useful in determining the course of treatment that will treat the condition without delay (Chokka, 2002). One case to consider is that of using the EPDS to screen patients for postpartum depression, and if the condition is identified, to determine its severity (Joesfsson, 2003). This scale is used to convey a greater understanding of the epidemiology of the illness, and its contributing factors in those that suffer its symptoms (Joesfsson, 2003). The case study under consideration examines women facing postpartum symptoms of depression at several intervals, and explores a number of variables that are relevant in describing the condition and its potential outcomes for female patients (Joesfsson, 2003). There were a number of statistical requirements under consideration, as well as an opportunity to explore the ethical nature of the study and how it might impact postpartum women in a personal manner: We questioned ourselves whether it would create increased anxiety to ask the eligible women personal questions about mental and physical health and later on about their childrens behavior. How ever, we concluded that the positive effects would outweigh the negative effects and that the attendance rate would reflect the womens opinions in this matter. Verbal and written information was given to all participants and it was made clear that participation was voluntary (Joesfsson, 2003, p. 33). From this perspective, it should be noted that the postpartum depression study served as a means of influencing the identification of risk factors, as well as the epidemiology behind such factors and subsequent treatment alternatives that would be useful in supporting patients of this nature (Joesfsson, 2003). In this manner, it was determined that the study was a safe and effective means of identifying various risk factors associated with postpartum depression. The study results indicate that the EPDS is a highly useful tool in order to support the findings associated with postpartum depression (Joesffson, 2003). One of the key factors in this study that is not found in many other studies is as follows: An advantage of this study is that all data were extracted from standardized medical records in which data were collected prior to knowledge of postpartum mood. This made it possible to minimize maternal recall bias. To our knowledge this is the only study that includes earlier medical, gynecologic and obstetric history (Joesffson, 2003, p. 37). Therefore, the study indicates that there are significant opportunities to explore postpartum depression by using the EPDS scale, and that the results from this scale will continue to provide clinicians with the tools that are necessary to improve diagnosis and treatment methods for postpartum depression and its many complexities (Joesffson, 2003). EPDS is also evaluated in a borderline case involving postpartum women from Chile, and it was determined that the scale is very useful in other settings as a screening and diagnostic tool (Jadresic et.al, 1995). Another borderline case involving subjects from Iran is also useful in determining the effectiveness of the EPDS tool (Montazeri et.al, 2007). A contrary case involves the detection of false negatives in using the EPDS, which is in stark contrast to many other cases that support the widespread use of this scale to identify postpartum depression (Guedeney et.al, 2000). A case invented for the research might demonstrate that EPDS is successful in diagnosing other types of depressive disorders or episodes that extend beyond postpartum depression. Finally, an illegitimate case involves an examination of symptoms that are depicted as postpartum depression with the EPDS, but are actually not related ( Jomeen and Martin, 2008). Based upon the model case, the antecedent is the series of unusual behaviors that are generally associated with postpartum depression, such a perceived detachment from the child, as well as emotions, such as uncontrollable crying and fits of anger. As a result of these behaviors, it is generally believed that women suffering from postpartum depression face considerable emotional and psychological consequences until they are diagnosed and are treated for their condition in a successful manner. In a related case study, EDHS is utilized in conjunction with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) in an effort to identify postpartum depression in a different light. In a general context, Routine depression screening has been recommended for all adults using tools, such as the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), that have been validated in primary care practices (Yawn et.al, 2009, p. 483). From this perspective, it is known that postpartum depression is not commonly considered under this questionnaire, and requires further consideration as a potential tool for evaluation of this condition (Yawn et.al, 2009). The study considered both tools as an opportunity to identify postpartum depressive symptoms, and to also demonstrate that these studies might be useful together, while also recognizing the limitations of their use in conjunction with each other (Yawn et.al, 2009). These findings suggest that there are significant factors involved in identifying postpartum depression, par ticularly when a body of questions are asked of each study participant that might be uncomfortable to answer (Yawn et.al, 2009). Therefore, it is difficult to identify all of the possible implications of using both tools without further evaluation (Yawn et.al, 2009). Nonetheless, it is very important and relevant to consider how postpartum depression is diagnosed and treated under the most common conditions. Other studies also demonstrate that postpartum depression, when diagnosed by using the EPDS scale, is highly responsive to different forms of cognitive therapy, including individual and group counseling, amongst other methods (Moss et.al, 2009). However, studies do not go so far as to say that educational programs are a useful tool in supporting the prevention of postpartum depression, as this has yet to be identified as an effective alternative (Moss et.al, 2009). There continue to be critical factors that influence postpartum depression that have not been fully identified, and therefore, the EPDS is a very useful method of deciphering new problems and potential treatment solutions (Moss et.al, 2009). Based upon the indicators provided in the discussion and case studies thus far, there are a number of empirical referents to consider when addressing the scope of postpartum depression, and how it is dramatically influenced by various factors, including but not limited to risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. It is clear that there are a number of common risk factors associated with postpartum depression that are common in many identified cases, including but not limited to prior depressive episodes, hormone imbalances, and other related factors. These factors are typical contributors to the condition, even though their severity varies from one case to another. Nonetheless, when considering postpartum depression, these are typical concerns that must be evaluated on a consistent basis. In one context, it is observed that postpartum depression may be associated with what is known as the relinquishment of motherhood, which is reflective of different circumstances, such as giving up a baby for adoption, as well as the challenges associated with postpartum depression (La Monica). In this context, Relinquishment is usually done with a great deal of conflict, especially if done under compulsion. Consequences of relinquishment are (1) the obvious loss of a child, (2) a resulting role change; she is no longer functioning as a mother, and (3) the inevitable grief process to follow (La Monica, p. 269). From this perspective, it is clear that postpartum depression also falls into this category, and possesses empirical consequences for a mother until a diagnosis and treatment plan is satisfied. It is important for a mother facing postpartum depression to consider how this might impact her child or children, and how to best approach the situation in a delicate yet assertive man ner. However, since the judgment of the mother is often poor as a result of her condition and she may be unable to think clearly, it is necessary to consider how the condition might be identified by a clinical professional, and thus treated accordingly. It is important for family members and clinicians to be involved as early as possible, so that the symptoms do not become so severe that irreversible consequences are inevitable, as occurs in some cases. In all cases of postpartum depression, it is critical to develop an understanding of the underlying factors, causes, and diagnosis methods that are most common, so that all possible ideas are explored without severe repercussions for patients. Therefore, it is expected that in all cases of postpartum depression, establishing a diagnosis using the EPDS and/or the PHQ are of critical relevance in order to determine the most feasible course of action for the patient in question. This is a general rule that applies to almost any diagnosis, and requires ongoing consideration in order to achieve the desired level of effectiveness. It is imperative that these methods are utilized consistently from one case to the next in order to establish effective patterns for treating postpartum depression and its underlying causes. In order to identify the various principles that are associated with a diagnosis of postpartum depression, it is necessary to develop a greater understanding of various risk factors that are associated with the illness and its outcomes for new and experienced mothers. It is evident that there are a variety of concerns that are associated with postpartum depression, and that these require further consideration and evaluation. Therefore, various research studies to date indicate that there are a number of relevant tools that are often utilized in order to understand the overall concepts associated with postpartum depression, and how to best diagnose and treat this complex psychological condition with physical undertones. The most common tools used to identify the condition are the EPDS and the PHQ, which are utilized to identify severity of the condition under different circumstances. Patients suffering from this illness must be cooperative and supportive in seeking a diagnosis and tre atment, even though this is often a very difficult concept to grasp. Therefore, it is important for clinicians to be heavily involved in this process, so that patients are provided with the best possible outcomes for their condition, regardless of its severity. This will provide the greatest level of support during diagnosis and treatment to improve the condition through regular treatment and ongoing intervention as necessary.

The Pros and Cons of Studying Abroad :: Pro Con Essays

In the US, the number of university students who study abroad increased dynamically. 154,168 American college students studied abroad from 2000 to 2001 compared to 48,483 students from 1985 to 1986 (Rooney 4). The more students study abroad, the more organizations have to work flexible. â€Å"The university has tried to track the changing interests of its students and the increasingly global nature of its curriculum by setting up programs in countries that did not attract as much interest a generation ago†(Rooney 2). A decade ago, the only destinations of studying abroad were in Western Europe, but there are many places for students to study abroad all over the world now (Rooney 2). Why students want to study abroad? For the reason, they can experience many amazing things. Studying abroad is not only to participate in classes at university but also to stay in different cultures and languages. To know other cultures is interesting, because bad manners in a country are sometimes normal things in the other. If you can speak more languages, we can talk to many people. Nowadays, it is very important to communicate with people who are from other countries because of businesses and to understand other cultures. This experience will positively affect one’s future. Furthermore, ways of thinking and knowledge will be wide and flexible. Therefore, studying abroad has many benefits. However, most students who desire to study abroad tend to think that they can experience only good things. This thinking relate to pamphlets because they only say good things. A studying abroad pamphlet says, â€Å"Learn a language, broaden your perspective, explore your iden tity, challenge yourself, increase your self-confidence and decision making skills, re-evaluate your priorities, values or goals, and discover a new or family cultural heritage† (C Pendex A). If students read this, they will definitely feel like studying abroad, but they have to know opposite side. Besides, the most important thing to remember is why they go overseas. The purpose of studying abroad is, of course, to study. Some foreign students die because of accidents or committing suicide. International students experience not only good things but also many bad situations. However, bad things are rarely showed in public.

The Importance of Emilia in Shakespeares Othello Essay -- GCSE Course

The Importance of Emilia in Shakespeare's Othello In Othello the Moor, Shakespeare combines destiny with a fatal character flaw and that flaw is jealousy.   Shakespeare's tragedy allows one character to hold the key to the entire web he has spun and that character is Emilia. Emilia is the lone character who garners the knowledge to all circumstances of the events surrounding the characters in Othello the Moor.   Although other characters in the play are privy to certain details of the unfolding events, Emilia is the character that uses this knowledge to the benefit of the play.   Emilia's character is minor yet necessary.   Without her character the play would have no means of unraveling the confusion created by the author.   Emilia, wife of Iago, should be questioned of her loyalty and commitment to both her husband and her dear friend, Desdemona.   The character of Emilia has only eight short parts in the play and of those parts only two are with the lead character of Othello.   Her character only interacts with Iago and Desdemona.   The first encounter between Othello and Emilia is in Act IV, Scene II.   Emilia assures Othello of Desdemona's true love and faithful manner.   Othello questioned Emilia "You have seen nothing, then?" "Nor ever heard, nor ever did suspect." (Shakespeare, Act IV, Scene II, page 1107) replied Emilia.   Emilia is telling the truth.   She knows for a fact that Desdemona has been faithful to her husband and that she loves him wholly.   But in Shakespeare's style of character development; Emilia is playing coy to the fact that her husband has lead Othello to believe differently.   Emilia is now the only character to have direct interaction with Othello, Desdemona and her husband and be knowledgeable of her hu... ... got to be assumed as a fateful event.   As Shakespeare said, ""It is not in the stars to hold our destiny but in ourselves." Works Cited and Consulted Bayley, John. Shakespeare and Tragedy. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1981. Bradley, A. C.. Shakespearean Tragedy. New York: Penguin, 1991. Campbell, Lily B. Shakespeare’s Tragic Heroes. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1970. Di Yanni, Robert. â€Å"Emilia's Character Revealed Through Dialogue.† Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996. Reprint from Literature. N. p.: Random House, 1986. Kermode, Frank. â€Å"Othello, the Moor of Venice.† The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974. Mack, Maynard. Everybody’s Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.

Effects of Sexual Abuse on Children Essay -- Psychology

A Brief Study of Sexual Abuse of Children and it's Causes and Effects Sexual abuse of children and infants is sadly as universal and old as the human race itself. But it is only in recent years that much more attention has been paid to the pervasive instance of sexual abuse among children, the majority of which occurs in the family setting. Pedophiles usually manifest signs that are readily identified. Common signs are: repetitive conversations about the sexual activities of children or teens, and excessive masturbation to include breaking from normal daily activities to masturbate. The pedophile has a childhood history of sexual abuse and has unresolved sexual problems stemming from this history. Hobbies centering around the collection of child pornography and sexual arousal when engaging in this hobby is a sign of a sexual perpetrator. Sexual abusers generally have a sense of frustration and anger released through the abuse of children. Pedophiles lack the ability to approach appropriate sexual partners, thus they seek out children to find a sexual release. As can be seen, emotional immaturity is a factor in a pedophile personality. Social inadequacy runs in juxtaposition with emotional immaturity. Additionally pedophiles enjoy the ability of control, and the sense of power they have over their victims. They feel as if they have no control over their own lives and so they take advantage of children in an attempt to achieve that sense of power. Statistics of child sexual abuse are highly controversial due to the fact that reporting and compilation of this information is incomplete and cannot be fully controlled. But from the information that can be gathered it is evident that there is extreme truth that sexual abus... ...re strong indications that environmental factors do play an important role. Children who are raised in an abusive environment, as adults create an abusive situation that their children "environmentally" inherit, and the cycle goes on and on. As is evident, child molestation is a commonly occurring abuse when it needn't be. If parents, siblings, teachers, religious leader, and society as a whole made an attempt to observe the physical and behavioral tendencies in children, abuse can be more readily perceived and therefore eradicated. Society must not blame the victim, but must punish the perpetrators and make an effort to rehabilitate them before allowing them to form an abusive situation yet again. Sexual abuse in children is a widely growing problem which needs our attention. We need to act now before more children are subjected to these unmotivated attacks.

Journey Humanities

Celeste Mompremier Professor Watts HUM1020-41 September 25, 2018 Flynn, Brenda. Journey. 2002. Mosaic tile on fiberglass armature. My overall museum experience was amazing. Since its been eight years since I have been to a museum, it was kind of new to me. But seeing all of the beautiful sculptures just blew me away. I was amazed by how much time and effort these people put in making such perfect artwork. I was also impressed by all the gifts these people have in making sculptures. I would definitely not have any talent in making these sculptures, that's for sure. I really enjoyed eyeing these sculptures in real life. I think that there are advantages in seeing art in real life because I believe that you get a much better understanding of art by seeing it in-person. Also, it can make you think more about the true meaning of art. I think that museums are relevant places to study humanities because they help us learn more about human culture. Museums help us grasp our attention more on our human history. We end up understanding our culture more. Also, it's fun to learn about art. Museums are important in understanding our culture because they help our newer generation learn about our history. No matter what, history should always be remembered and never forgotten. I also think that people of different backgrounds can learn better at museums because of the artwork from our ancestors of the same heritage. I think that the difference between something authentic and a copy is possibly the texture. I feel like that actual artist put so much care and time and effort in his or her artwork. But the other artist, although he or she did work hard on the copy, did not put as much care and effort as the original artwork. They just tried to make it look as much like the original as possible. Also, nobody can ever make the exact same texture as the original. I feel like the original artwork would have a more smoother texture than the replica. I would rather see the original artwork than the replica because I believe that the original would have more meaning than the replica. The authentic artwork has a much larger purpose than a replica. Original is unique that is irreplaceable. It's more powerful to see the original because you can interpret the message that the artist is saying. With a replica all you can interpret is how much they wanted to mirror the original. With a replica there is no purpose or meaning. If I were a part of the Monuments Men task force, then the sculpture that I would have saved and chosen is a colorful horse made of mosaic tile on fiberglass. My artwork is named Journey. This sculpture is created by Brenda Flynn. I chose this piece of artwork because it just captivated me. I also feel like this sculpture is has a rarity in it that makes it unique. This horse isn't your usual horse that is drawn like a regular horse that has fur. This horse's mosaic tile on fiberglass just makes it rare and captivating. Also its just so creative that someone would think outside the box by creating a three-dimensional horse full of multicolored mosaic tile. This sculpture would most definitely be something worth saving. I think that the artist's purpose on making this sculpture is she is trying to promote individualism because this is not your usual horse. This horse is colorful. She's trying to express that it's ok to be different. That different is beautiful. Also that you do not have to be like everybody else. Its vivid colors lead me to suspect that its expressing that our world is full of different cultures, fashion, etc. And that the title Journey is expressing travelling all around the world. The colors also express this earth because we have so many states and countries that have different cultures, beliefs, values, and religion. The horse also expresses travelling in a way because she's bringing back how people used to ride horses to get from place to place. The theme is travelling and expressing yourself. I know this because of the colors of our world of different ways of living. I find that this sculpture means to always live life to the fullest, because life itself is short. Not to mention that there are so many places to see, to where the artist is encouraging travelling. Honestly, as soon as I saw this sculpture, I was immediately awestruck by the artwork. I don't think that I have ever seen anything so beautiful in my life. I said to myself that I had to absolutely make my museum paper about this magnificent sculpture. It's such a stunning piece of art. The reason why I liked the piece is because I felt a connection with this sculpture. I loved the message it brought out. Where its alright to live your life to the fullest by taking every journey that knocks at your door. With the mosaic tile shimmering with all kinds of colors of every culture. This piece makes me see that in life, it's important to take certain journeys throughout your life because you might find just what you're looking for. I believe that it does have a strong message because life is so beautiful, don't waste it all in one place. The sculpture isn't named Journey for nothing. I believe that everything in this artwork has a purpose. The media of this sculpture is multicolored mosaic tile and fiberglass. This sculpture is actually a mixed media, because of its mosaic tile and fiberglass. The fiberglass looks like it's of a grey color, while the mosaic tile is multi-colored. The fiberglass is also carved with pieces of mosaic glass covered around it. The technique of this sculpture is that the fiberglass is carved out to give it its unique horse-like shape. Also the way these people managed to put all of that mosaic glass glued around it without messing it up is absolute pure talent. I think that the mixed media enhances the meaning because of the fact that the fiberglass of the sculpture is shaped like a horse, and the fact that it is named Journey, it is inspiring others to travel the world. Also because it's a different looking horse, that it's ok to be different. The multicolored mosaic tile also expresses how different and beautiful our cultures are, and how important it is to experience everything in the world. I strongly believe that the new material is superior to the traditional media because mosaic tile is usually used for walls, ceilings, etc. After all, the textbook has stated that when we engage with two-dimensional works of art at a more technical level, we begin to notice things about the work's medium. It also states that one of the choices is the work's medium, which gives it its fundamental characteristics. (pg.30) It's saying that whatever tool the artist uses to create the sculpture, they gave it its true meaning. Mosaic tile is very unique in a sculpture because nobody usually uses that for sculptures. The most common media usually used for work is paint. One of the principles of this artwork is pattern. I say pattern because the way the swirls of the horse interact with each other. This sculpture is just filled with swirls of different colors. Also apart from the swirls, this artwork has a lot of circles of different colors surrounding the swirls. The artist brought out the mosaic tile by putting them in different shapes and colors. The swirls of the mosaic tile make it look like a purse. It's one after another perfectly placed together. How does this artist manage to make the shapes so perfectly proportionate with each other from head to toe? That is beyond me. The swirls spread out a message of creativity. One of the elements of this artwork is color. I say color because of the fact that this sculpture does not focus on just one color, but many. Red, green, white, yellow, orange, etc. All blended together in one beautiful horse. The colors express individualism. This sculpture expresses how beautiful color is. I am so glad that the artist created the sculpture the way she did. This art sculpture expresses shape as one of its elements because of the fact that it is shaped like a horse. The sculpture provides such a beautiful horse. I also believe that another one of the sculpture's elements is good texture because of the mosaic tile and fiberglass. The texture is emphasized in great details of the smooth feel of the mosaic tile. The texture has a smooth feel to the touch. The texture has such a brilliant finish. Another one of the principles of the sculpture is emphasis, because this artwork is put out with such importance to where it is the most valuable of them all to be saved. This sculpture is saying a message that is crying for attention. The mosaic tile especially on the horse, since it's unreal to have a horse that is covered with anything other than fur, is brought out to the viewer's attention. The mosaic tile is the focal point because it's unique. This is the best sculpture because it stands out. Also, another one of the principles of this sculpture is rhythm because the pattern of the mosaic tile is different with the different colors of the mosaic tile, but yet the routine is repeated that it's all around the horse. The repetition goes on the same way. The arrangement is put out like the mosaic tile in the same streak but different patterns and colors. The patters go between being multicolored to being all in swirls. Another one of the elements of this sculpture is form because it is a three-dimensional horse. The form is trying to tell us a story about this artwork. The form gives this art such a descriptive nature of taking journeys in our lives. The form gives this sculpture a purpose of taking chances in life. I do believe that this artwork is a cultural value because this sculpture could have easily been from another country because it's just so rare and sacred. This mosaic glass horse is not what you see everyday. The main thing that cries out that it is culturally valued is that it is named Journey, and that it's multicolored with different patterns. The colors and patterns read out all of our different cultures and values that exist in this earth. I think that the value of this artwork in today's society would probably be a little irrelevant because in my opinion, art has declined in value. People in todays generation in general don't seem to appreciate art anywhere near as much as people in previous generations. So I am not disagreeing because of my sculpture, I am just disagreeing because art regardless has declined with a sudden increase in technology. Art has lost its value and excitement it once had for human beings. No, I don't think that the artwork's message will become relevant in the future, but not in the way that you think. As I said before, I just think that all art has lost its value in todays world and people lost interest so therefore, I think that all recognition in art will decrease from this point forward. I absolutely love the message the artwork is trying to portray, but I know deep down in my heart that art no longer has the same values the way they did in previous centuries and generations. Yes, I feel that the Monuments Men risking their lives for art was a worthwhile endeavor because as much as I would never die for art, I loved the fact that they were standing up for what they believed in. And also, they would not give up no matter what. They would do anything to get to it rain or shine, and life or death. They knew that the artwork would eventually increase in value in culture overtime, so they wanted to make sure that the art was spared, regardless of what would have happened to them. I would never do the same because I don't feel for myself that it's worth dying for art. For people that you care about, that's another story. But for artwork, it would depend on how much that piece meant to you. For me, if I were to choose art or myself, I think that I would be a little bit selfish and choose myself. Artwork is not replaceable, but you can build something at least close to it. But human life cannot be reconstructed. No one can ever create another you.

Business Administration Goals Essay

The world of business is one of the most complex yet interesting fields that an aspiring professional may dwell into. Business can turn a poor man into a tycoon just by venturing to franchise, invent a new device or work for a million-dollar company. Even though business may sometimes scare other individuals, it is also the very reason why others strive hard to be a part of the fast-moving commerce elites. As mentioned, it makes great impact to a person’s life. Hence, not all who took the risk was able to succeed, if business is not administered in the most effective way—it could cost a person a lifetime in paying debts. Conceivably, I belong to the group of aspiring individuals who dreams of having a company that will change lives of other people. Even though I am aware of the risks of petitioning myself to the lives of the privileged, I am whole-heartedly stepping forward to pursue my dream. My sole ambition is to serve the public with grace and wit—make ethical decisions and sustain financial stability—but before all that, I know I must be able to hone myself in becoming one. Success does not happen overnight. It requires determination and the right education to build an empire of assets. My dad is a business man. I grew up knowing that being a businessman means being a leader. It does not necessarily mean that I need to have constituents to lead, but that I need to be decisive. My father always told me that business tycoons who failed in the industry were nothing but greedy individuals who does not know a thing or two in making decisions—the ethical ones. Since then I promised to myself that I will be a leader who knows how to lead well. A person anchored not only with tangible assets but with knowledge. Entering college served as a crossroad for my dreams. I was torn between engineering and business. Most of my friends in high school encouraged me to enroll with engineering courses. For a while I was dumbfounded with the thought that neither of my friends wanted to become leaders of tomorrow—own a construction company per se. But my instinct was racing through my veins, as I turn every magazine that featured the finest business tycoons in the country, my heart pounded. I then knew I wanted to be like them. It was a field that I grew up with and it will be what I shall pursue. I had my degree in business administration. The goal that made me pursue my dream was a manifestation of my confidence. The training that I have received inside the walls of the classroom and off to the real world brought out the entrepreneur in me. During my academic years, my mentors taught me how to manage a business entity—the aptitude in solving problems which are based on the comprehension of tools, concepts, and theories of functional business disciplines. Aside from that, it is through education that I acquired the capability to excel functional borders, fusing and integrating information to create multifaceted, short-term decisions with limited data. Education has served me well in honing myself in becoming a capitalist of the 21st century. It was through commencing and conducting researches and divulge in competitive analysis that I was able to apply the strategies that I learnt. I realized that environmental scanning is necessary for long-term strategic decisions. To effectively harness and utilize the dawning of technology and employ such in the most deliberate manner was a mean of keeping one’s game alive. Competition is tight in the business arena. Each player must be prepared and must have forecasting methods to stay in the game. My goal is to enrich my knowledge on these fields which I know are beneficial for my future career. Every individual have a set of goals. Mine only happens not only to be a goal but also a dream that I have long wished to hold a grasp of. I want to improve the knowledge and skills that I have acquired in my tertiary years. I humbly believe that there is more to learn. Given the fact that I am determined to run a company that will provide employment for the underprivileged, I know I need to be equipped with the capacity to balance finances and be armed with managerial skills. In the light, I am optimistic that I will succeed. Every single lesson will help me in the future and possibly help others. I do not only wish to keep the knowledge that I have for myself but I also intend to share these with other aspirants—to help the next generation in raising the economy of the country. Globalization has expanded the face of business in the society. I consider every country an asset as new ordeals shall be discovered. Thus to be able to handle this massive weight of transactions I must learn the twists of every nation’s economy and become skilled at risk management. I am preparing myself for the worst. As mentioned earlier, anything can happen. Although quite on the contrary, I envision myself breaking boundaries. My goal now is to defy the trend of risk-taking; that given the efficient strategies, a blooming entrepreneur will not fail. Individuals who still believe in the necessity of the discipline of business administration to address real world, value laden issues would gain a foothold and began the long climb back to a place in the sun. As modularity becomes an established way of doing business, competition among fresh and old dogs in business will intensify. Nevertheless the society will look for the best-performing or lowest cost goods and services, spurring these increasingly sophisticated and independent suppliers into a race for innovation. The world is full of possibilities, they say. Therefore there is a spark of hope in the goals I have set. I may sound too idealistic in this sense but I am looking on the bright side. I will make my parents proud. I will reach my goals—no matter how tough the ride gets.